Interpreting Lower Trapezius Musculocutaneous Flap Skin Paddle Perfusion with Indocyanine Green Angiography.

Background: The lower trapezius myocutaneous flap (LTF) is a pedicled flap with clinically significant variability of distal skin flap perfusion. Objective: To compare the incidence of partial flap necrosis before and after the institution of routine intraoperative laser-assisted indocyanine green (ICG) angiography. Methods: This is a retrospective review of all LTF performed between November 2021 and July 2022. The outcomes measured in this study are the distance distal to the inferior border of the trapezius muscle with adequate perfusion, and incidence and degree of partial flap necrosis. Results: Sixteen patients met inclusion criteria with a median age of 64.5 years, and a median defect size of 147 cm2. Most patients (11/16) had undergone previous treatment for malignancy. Before utilizing ICG angiography, 40% (2/5) had partial flap necrosis, whereas after utilizing ICG angiography, 9% (1/11) of patients had partial flap necrosis. Seventy-three percent (8/11) of cases who underwent ICG angiography demonstrated a portion of the skin paddle with inadequate perfusion. The range of skin perfusion distal to the inferior border of the trapezius muscle was 0-7 cm (median, 4). Conclusions: The incidence of partial flap necrosis decreased after institution of routine ICG angiography.

Free Flap Outcomes for Head and Neck Surgery in Patients with COVID-19.

INTRODUCTION: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) affects the vascular system, subjecting patients to a hypercoagulable state. This is of particular concern for the success of microvascular free flap reconstruction. This study aims to report head and neck free flap complications in patients with COVID-19 during the perioperative period. We believe these patients are more likely to experience flap complications given the hypercoagulable state. METHODS: This is a multi-institutional retrospective case series of patients infected with COVID-19 during the perioperative period for head and neck free flap reconstruction from March 2020 to January 2022. RESULTS: Data was collected on 40 patients from 14 institutions. Twenty-one patients (52.5%) had a positive COVID-19 test within 10 days before surgery and 7 days after surgery. The remaining patients had a positive test earlier than 10 days before surgery. A positive test caused a delay in surgery for 16 patients (40.0%) with an average delay of 44.7 days (9-198 days). Two free flap complications (5.0%) occurred with no free flap deaths. Four patients (10.0%) had surgical complications and 10 patients had medical complications (25.0%). Five patients (12.5%) suffered from postoperative COVID-19 pneumonia. Three deaths were COVID-19-related and one from cancer recurrence during the study period. CONCLUSION: Despite the heightened risk of coagulopathy in COVID-19 patients, head and neck free flap reconstructions in patients with COVID-19 are not at higher risk for free flap complications. However, these patients are at increased risk of medical complications. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 4 Laryngoscope, 2023.

Impact of smoking on donor site following rectus flap harvest for head and neck reconstruction.

OBJECTIVES: The rectus abdominis myocutaneous free flap has been widely used as a reconstructive option in head and neck reconstruction with great success. Challenging the popular assumption, this study sought to examine the effects of smoking on donor site complications in this population. METHODS: Multi-institution retrospective study of 103 patients (50 active smokers, 28 former and 25 never smoked). RESULTS: Overall complication rate was 14.5 %. Hernia rate 4.8 %, evisceration 0 %, dehiscence 2.9 %, infection 6.7 %. Smoking history did not significantlly influence complication rates (chi square test, p = 0.33). Abdominal wall closure technique also did not influence the complication rate (chi square test, p = 0.58). CONCLUSIONS: The rectus abdomonis myocutaneous free flap has an acceptable complication rate that does not appear to be influenced by smoking history. While patients should be counseled regarding smoking cessation, smoking habits should not delay treatment nor obviate consideration of rectus flap utilization.

Analysis of vein grafting versus arteriovenous loop in microvascular head and neck reconstruction: Multicenter series of 36 patients.

BACKGROUND: The utilization of an arteriovenous loop is an underreported technique that affords the creation of reliable vascular options. Understanding the efficacy and impacting variables of microvascular reconstruction with an arteriovenous loop can be critical to its use. METHODS: Multi-institutional study of 36 patients who underwent vein grafting or AV loop with free tissue transfer. RESULTS: 58.3% of patients received prior radiation and 38.9% prior flap reconstruction. Flap success for vein grafting was 76% and AV loop was 100% (p = 0.16). Success for the radiated cohort was 90.5% and non-radiated 80% (p = 0.63). Flap success for the radiated, vein grafted patient was 83.3% and 100% flap success rate for radiated, AV loop patient (p = 0.49). Overall flap survival was 83.3% versus 97% overall success rate in the United States. CONCLUSION: The AV loop is a viable modality for vessel-depleted free tissue reconstruction. Radiation and previous surgery do not significantly impact flap success rates.

Management of Palatal Defects after Free-Flap Reconstruction and Radiotherapy.

Palatal fistulas have significant effects on quality of life. Traditional prosthetic rehabilitation and surgical reconstruction of palate defects in radiation-naïve tissues are well described. However, palatal fistulas developing after initial tumor extirpation, free-flap reconstruction, and adjuvant radiation or chemoradiation are associated with challenging secondary tissue effects. In this review, we will discuss the management of palatal fistulas after surgical reconstruction and radiotherapy.

Post-operative Outcomes in Pediatric Patients Following Facial Reconstruction With Fibula Free Flaps.

EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVE: Assess outcomes of pediatric facial reconstruction with fibula free flaps. OBJECTIVES: Free flap reconstruction of complex maxillofacial defects in pediatric patients is rare. Post-operative complications, donor site morbidity, impact on craniofacial growth, and oro-dental rehabilitation are unknown. Our study assesses the outcomes of pediatric maxillofacial reconstruction with composite fibula free flaps. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective chart review. METHODS: Multi-institutional retrospective chart review from 2000 to 2020 on pediatric patients undergoing maxillomandibular reconstruction with fibula free flaps. RESULTS: Eighty-seven patients underwent 89 surgeries; 5 maxillary and 84 mandibular defects. Median age: 12 years. Defects were acquired following resection of sarcoma/carcinoma 44% or benign tumors 50%. 73% of cases had immediate free flap reconstruction. Closing osteotomies were reported in 74%; 1 in 40%, 2 in 27%, and more than 2 in 6.7%. Hardware was used in 98% and removed in 25%. 9.2% demonstrated long-term hardware exposure, greater than 3 months following reconstruction. Short-term complications: wound infection 6.7%, flap salvage/failure 2.2%, fistula 1.1%, and compromised craniofacial growth: 23%. Two patients developed trismus. Long-term fibula donor site complications: hypertrophic scarring: 3.4%, dysesthesia: 1.1%, and long-term gait abnormality: 1.1%. Dental rehabilitation was performed in 33%. Post-operative speech outcomes showed 94% with fully intelligible speech. CONCLUSION: Pediatric maxillary and mandible defects repaired with fibula free flaps demonstrated complication rates comparable to the adult free flap population. Long-term follow-up did not demonstrate adverse outcomes for craniofacial growth. Hardware for flap retention was utilized and remained in place with minimal exposure. Post-operative gait abnormality is rare. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 3 Laryngoscope, 133:302-306, 2023.

Does Bulky Adenopathy in Human Papilloma Virus-Positive Oropharyngeal Squamous Cell Carcinoma Require a Planned Post-Treatment Neck Dissection for Occult Residual Disease?

PURPOSE: A planned neck dissection was traditionally considered for a large nodal disease after definitive chemoradiation, yet controversy exists for the human papilloma virus-positive oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (HPV OPSCC). We aimed to measure the frequency of persistent occult neck disease in planned neck dissection for HPV OPSCC presenting with a large (≥3.0 cm) nodal burden. METHODS: We designed a retrospective cohort study at a single tertiary referral institution. The study population was sampled from 2006 to 2018 and subjects with HPV OPSCC and adenopathy ≥3.0 cm. Inclusion criteria encompassed subjects who completed primary chemoradiation therapy (CRT) or primary radiation therapy (RT), and subsequently underwent a planned neck dissection. We excluded subjects who did not complete therapy or had less than 1-year follow-up. Our primary predictor variable was the size of cervical adenopathy on presentation (3.0-3.9 cm, 4.0-4.9 cm, 5.0-5.9 cm, and ≥6.0 cm). Our primary outcome of interest was the presence of disease based on the histopathology review. Other variables included the demographics, primary treatment with CRT or RT, and post-treatment clinical or radiographic evidence of disease. Chi-square testing was used to compare rates of persistent disease, with varying sizes of cervical adenopathy on presentation. The alpha level for statistical significance was set at 0.05. RESULTS: A total of 86 subjects were analyzed, with forty-one females and forty-five males, ranging from 36 to 77 years (mean 54.6 years). From the total study sample, 35% showed persistent disease, and 67% of those subjects had occult disease at the time of planned neck dissection. Greater than 20% of subjects had persistent disease when the nodal burden was ≥3.0 cm at presentation. Furthermore, there was a statistically significant difference in the rates of persistent microscopic disease among subjects with nodal burden of different sizes based on chi-square testing (P = .01, χ2 = 10.66). CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that subjects with HPV OPSCC presenting with a nodal burden ≥3.0 cm are likely to have 23% chance of persistent occult neck disease after primary CRT or RT. These findings may support the routine treatment of these subjects with a planned neck dissection after initial therapy to confirm or surgically complete disease eradication.

Surgical Management of Necrotizing Fasciitis of the Head and Neck.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to highlight risk factors and surgeries for necrotizing fasciitis (NF) of the head and neck in the literature. NF is rare but can rapidly progress. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A literature search was done using PubMed and SCOPUS. Articles that discussed NF of the head and neck and a specific surgical technique were included. A bivariate Pearson correlation was conducted using an α level of 0.05. RESULTS: The study included 31 articles encompassing 77 patients who presented with head and neck NF. Diabetes mellitus (23.4%) was the most common comorbidity observed. Surgical techniques, such as debridement (96.10%) and incision/exploration (97.40%), were common. CONCLUSION: Immediate surgical intervention should be performed when treating patients presenting with NF of the head and neck.

Success and Outcomes Following a Second Salvage Attempt for Free Flap Compromise in Patients Undergoing Head and Neck Reconstruction.

Importance: Incidence of perioperative free flap compromise is low, with successful salvage in up to 70%. When the flap is compromised a second time, the value of intervening is unknown. Objective: To assess the outcomes of a second revascularization attempt for compromised free flaps. Design, Setting, and Participants: This multicenter retrospective medical record review included patients undergoing head and neck reconstruction with free flaps at 6 US medical centers from January 1, 2000, through December 30, 2020. Patients were 18 years or older with a history of head and neck defects from cancer, osteoradionecrosis, or other wounds. Of 3510 flaps identified, 79 were successfully salvaged once, became compromised a second time, and underwent attempted salvage. Main Outcome and Measure: Flaps with a history of initial compromise and successful revascularization demonstrating second episodes of compromise followed by second salvage attempts. Results: A total of 79 patients (mean age, 64 years; 61 [77%] men) were included in the analysis. Of the 79 flaps undergoing second salvage attempts, 24 (30%) survived while 55 (70%) demonstrated necrosis. Arterial or venous thrombectomy was performed in 17 of the 24 (71%) flaps that survived and 23 of the 55 (42%) flaps demonstrating necrosis (odds ratio, 3.38; 95% CI, 1.21-9.47). When venous compromise was encountered, changing the anastomotic vein was associated with decreased survival compared with not changing the vein (29 of 55 [53%] flaps vs 10 of 24 [42%] flaps); vein revision to an alternative branch was completed in 1 of the 24 (4%) flaps that survived and 19 of the 55 (35%) flaps with necrosis (odds ratio, 0.08; 95% CI, 0.00-0.60). Factors that were not associated with flap survival following second salvage attempts included flap type, cause of flap failure, postoperative complications, patient comorbidities, and heparin administration after second salvage. Conclusions and Relevance: In this cohort study, second salvage was successful in 30% of free flaps. Flaps that underwent arterial or venous thrombectomy demonstrated better survival, while vein revision to neighboring branch veins was associated with worse flap outcomes.

Implantable Doppler Removal After Free Flap Monitoring Among Head and Neck Microvascular Surgeons.

OBJECTIVE: Investigate current practice patterns of head and neck microvascular reconstructive surgeons when removing an implantable Doppler after free flap surgery. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey study. METHODS: Survey distributed to head and neck microvascular reconstructive surgeons. Data regarding years performing free tissue transfer, case numbers, management of implantable Doppler wire, and complications were collected. RESULTS: Eighty-five responses were analyzed (38,000 cases). Sixty-six responders (77.6%) use an implantable Doppler for postoperative monitoring, with 97% using the Cook-Swartz Doppler Flow Monitoring System. Among this group, 65.2% pull the wire after monitoring was complete, 3% cut the wire, and 31.8% have both cut and pulled the wire. Of those who have cut and pulled the wire, 48% report cutting and pulling the wire with equal frequency, 43% formerly pulled the wire and now cut the wire, and 9% previously cut the wire but now pull the wire. Of those who pull the wire, there were two injuries to the pedicle requiring return to the operating for flap salvage, and one acute venous congestion. Of the nine who previously pulled the wire, six (67%) cited concerns with major bleeding/flap compromise as the reason for cutting the wire. CONCLUSION: In this study, most surgeons use an implantable Doppler for monitoring of free flaps postoperatively. In extremely rare instances, pulling the implantable Doppler wire has resulted in flap compromise necessitating revision of the vascular anastomosis. Cutting the wire and leaving the proximal portion in the surgical site has been adopted as a management option. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 4 Laryngoscope, 132:554-559, 2022.

Cranioplasty.

Calvarial defects are commonly encountered after neurosurgical procedures, trauma, and ablative procedures of advanced head neck cancers. The goals of cranioplasty are to provide a protective barrier for the intracranial contents, to restore form, and prevent syndrome of the trephined. Autologous and alloplastic techniques are available, each with their advantages and drawbacks. A multitude of materials are available for cranioplasty, and proper timing of reconstruction with attention to the overlying skin envelope is important in minimizing complications.

Bony Orbital Surgery for Graves' Ophthalmopathy.

The majority of Graves' ophthalmopathy, or thyroid eye disease, can be managed medically; however, in refractory or severe cases, surgical intervention with orbital decompression may be necessary. The majority of the published literature is retrospective in nature, and there is no standardized approach to orbital decompression. The purpose of this review is to evaluate the various surgical approaches and techniques for orbital decompression. Outcomes are ultimately dependent on individual patient factors, surgical approach, and surgeon experience.

Genioplasty and Mandibular Implants.

Genioplasty is a useful technique employed for both aesthetic and, in the case of obstructive sleep apnea, functional purposes. Mandibular implants similarly represent a powerful tool in the facial surgeons armamentarium. Herein, we review relevant anatomy, patient evaluation, and various techniques employing both alloplastic augmentation and osseous modification of the mandible.

Orthognathic Surgery-LeFort I Osteotomy.

Orthognathic surgery is a complex type of facial surgery that can have a profound impact on a patient's occlusal function and facial aesthetics. Close collaboration between the maxillofacial surgeon and an orthodontist is required, and the surgical team must have a strong foundation in facial analysis and firm understanding of the maxillofacial skeleton to achieve surgical success. Herein, we review the maxillary LeFort I osteotomy as it pertains to orthognathic surgery, with particular attention to the indications, contraindications, preoperative assessment, surgical technique, and possible complications encountered.

Jaw in a Day: Immediate Dental Rehabilitation during Fibula Reconstruction of the Mandible.

Reconstructing mandibular defects presents challenges to dental rehabilitation related to altered bone and soft tissue anatomy. Dental implants are the most reliable method to restore the lost dentition. Immediate dental implants have been placed for many years but with unacceptably low rates of dental/prosthetic success. Current virtual technology allows placement of both fibulas and guided implants in restoratively driven positions that also allow immediate dental rehabilitation. Inexpensive three-dimensional printing platforms can create provisional dental prostheses placed at the time of surgery. This article reviews our digital and surgical workflow to create an immediate dental prosthesis to predictably restore the dentition during major jaw reconstruction with fibula free flaps.

Reconstruction of the Mandibular Condyle.

The mandibular condyle is an integral structure in the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) serving not only as the hinge point for mandibular opening, but also facilitating mandibular growth and contributing to facial aesthetics. Significant compromise of the TMJ can be debilitating functionally, psychologically, and aesthetically. Reconstruction of the mandibular condyle is rarely straightforward. Multiple considerations must be accounted for when preparing for condylar reconstruction such as ensuring eradication of all chronically diseased or infected bone, proving clear oncologic margins following tumor resection, or achieving stability of the surrounding architecture in the setting of a traumatic injury. Today, there is not one single gold-standard reconstructive method or material; ongoing investigation and innovation continue to improve and transform condylar reconstruction. Herein, we review methods of condylar reconstruction focusing on autologous and alloplastic materials, surgical techniques, and recent technological advances.

Maxillofacial Bony Considerations in Facial Transplantation.

Alloplastic facial transplantation has become a new rung on the proverbial reconstructive ladder for severe facial wounds in the past couple of decades. Since the first transfer including bony components in 2006, numerous facial allotransplantations across many countries have been successfully performed, many incorporating multiple bony elements of the face. There are many unique considerations to facial transplantation of bone, however, beyond the considerations of simple soft tissue transfer. Herein, we review the current literature and considerations specific to bony facial transplantation focusing on the pertinent surgical anatomy, preoperative planning needs, intraoperative harvest and inset considerations, and postoperative protocols.

Pilot Study of External Beam Radiotherapy for Recurrent Unremitting Tracheal Stenosis.

OBJECTIVE: Tracheal stenosis can have a variety of presentations, severities, causes, and be a difficult condition to treat. Some patients demonstrate recurrent stenosis after multiple endoscopic treatments and are either poor candidates for open procedures or do not desire open surgery. We sought to evaluate low-dose postoperative external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) as a novel therapy for patients with recurrent tracheal stenosis refractory to endoscopic therapies. METHOD: We performed a retrospective review of patients with recurrent tracheal stenosis who underwent EBRT in addition to endoscopic dilation. We compared the number of endoscopic procedures required in the 6 months before EBRT to the number required in the 6 months after EBRT. RESULTS: Six patients met criteria for inclusion in our study. The cause of stenosis was variable among the study population. In the 6 months leading up to EBRT, patients underwent an average 6.2 endoscopic procedures. This dropped to an average 1.9 procedures in the 6 months following EBRT (P < .001). CONCLUSION: Herein, we show that low-dose postoperative external beam radiotherapy (EBRT), a novel therapy for patients with recurrent tracheal stenosis refractory to endoscopic therapies, is effective in decreasing the frequency of endoscopic dilations. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 4.